The hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis is an ancient and highly conserved system across all vertebrates ( Bardet et al., 2008 Ericsson and Jensen, 2016 Jenkins and Porter, 2004 Kuenzel et al., 2020 Wise and Frye, 1973). The conclusion is that the telencephalic control of the HPA axis is probably an ancient system that dates from before the split between sauropsid and synapsid reptiles, but more research is needed into the functional relationships between the brain areas reviewed in birds if we want to understand the level of this conservation. This review summarizes which telencephalic areas in birds are connected to the HPA axis and are known to respond to stressful situations. Birds also mount HPA axis responses to psychological stressors, but much less is known about the telencephalic areas that control this response. In mammals, the telencephalon plays an important role in the regulation of the HPA axis response in particular to psychological stressors, with the amygdala and part of prefrontal cortex stimulating the stress response, and the hippocampus and another part of prefrontal cortex inhibiting the response to return it to baseline. This axis is regulated in response to both physical (e.g., osmotic) and psychological (e.g., social) stressors. These hormones regulate a range of processes throughout the brain and body, with the main function of mobilizing energy reserves to improve coping with a stressful situation. It controls the release of cortisol or corticosterone from the adrenal gland. The hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis is one of the major output systems of the vertebrate stress response.
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